Running head: EXPLORING THE DYNAMICS OF TOURISM IN TWIN ISLAND CARIBBEAN 1
EXPLORING THE DYNAMICS OF TOURISM IN TWIN ISLAND CARIBBEAN
7
Exploring the Dynamics of Tourism in Twin Island Caribbean Countries
Name
Institution
Table of Contents
4Executive Summary
5Relationship between main islands and outlying “sister” islands
6Policy development and administration
9Literature Review
9Definitions of dynamics of Tourism
10Caribbean as a Mecca of Tourism
10Economic impact
11Cultural impact
12Political impact
12Social impact
13Tourism as a key economic pillar of the British Virgin Islands
13Policy making with regards to Tourism in the Caribbean
13Trinidad & Tobago model
14St. Kitts & Nevis model
15Antigua & Barbuda model
15Economic Benefits vs Contributions
16Residents’ perception
16Dual governance versus Main island central governance
17Proposed Methodology
18Expected Challenges (with conducting the exploratory research)
20Bibliography
Executive Summary
The purpose of this thesis proposal is to explore the dynamics and issues of tourism in Caribbean countries with multiple islands. It explores the existence of issues like tourism collaboration, cooperation, coordination, and conflict between subordinate and dominant islands in small twin-island developing states (STIDS). According to Duval, Timothy (2004), tourism industry in small island developing states (SIDS) has failed to examine the responsibility of the internal core-periphery (ICP) in designing institutional arrangements that can steer effective coordination, cooperation, and collaboration between tourism organizations
. Results from a research conducted in Trinidad and Tobago using in-depth interviews revealed the need to have effective institutional designing, organizational responsibilities and authority
. In addition, it revealed how organizations and their actors intermingle and relate in determining power distribution (Duval & Timothy, 2004).
Respondent’s feedback confirmed that inter-organizational conflicts have been in existence for over the past hundred years. From the above explanation, it is important to recognize historical context in order to get a fuller and comprehensive understanding of the economic, social, cultural, and political complexity of the location within which institutional planning for tourism are designed. According to Bohalis (2000), Tourists flock these Caribbean islands because they have many attraction sites and activities. The maritime tropical climate in this region is one of the major tourist’s attractions. Others in the sea include scuba diving, snorkeling on the coral reefs, fishing in the sea, sailing, golf, wildlife reserves, cycling, limestone caves, hiking, botanical garden caves, cycling, and horseback riding (Bohalis, 2000). Cultural tourist attractions in these islands include reggae, cricket, steel bands, and carnival
.
Relationship between main islands and outlying “sister” islands
To elaborate the institutional arrangement of tourism in the islands we use the twin-islands of Antigua and Barbuda, Trinidad and Tobago and St Kitts and Nevis. Researchers have argued that the internal core-periphery relationships and historical forces that were important in shaping the political, social, and economic structures of the islands played a key role in the institutional arrangement. It is clear that tourism policies in this region major on facilitating and promoting tourism in order to ensure economic stability (Duval & Timothy, 2004). However, several developments have ensured the incorporation of environmental and social cultural aspects in the policy formulation.
All the twin islands in this region enjoy a strong internal core-periphery relationship. According to Duval, Timothy (2004), Barbuda, Nevis and Tobago possessed their own administrative structure and autonomous functioning
. As a result, they developed their idiosyncratic customs. These customs were highly guarded and protected from any kind of infringement. They owned a strong and long-standing sense of open-minded identity. In addition, they viewed themselves as unique economic, political, and cultural entities. However, the relationship between the peripheral local government in these twin-islands and the central government has been laden with many challenges (Duval & Timothy, 2004). The main challenge in this relationship is high level of dissatisfaction in the Islands. Each Island does not look satisfied with the resources allocated by the government. This has led to a lot of discontent to the central government. For example, Tobagonians complain about neglect on funds allocation and lack of representation in the parliament
. The most important component of policy formulation and administration in the Caribbean states concerning tourism public policy is the institutional arrangement (Duval & Timothy, 2004). The proposal will also cover the perception of residents on tourism. Residents have both positive and negative perceptions on tourism industry.
Policy development and administration
Political organization plays an important role in the design and the effectiveness of institutional arrangement in the tourism industry of Antigua and Barbuda, St Kitts and Nevis, and Trinidad and Tobago. One of the means that has been implemented in twin-islands to manage conflicts between periphery and core is the decentralized internal autonomy (Premdas, 2000). Decentralized internal autonomy is indicated through federal arrangement like in St Kitts and Nevis. Trinidad and Tobago and Antigua and Barbuda have decentralized autonomy that is constitutionally fixed into unitary state. Antigua, St Kitts, and Trinidad have tried to accommodate Barbuda, Nevis, and Tobago in their government. To achieve this they have established the Barbuda Council, The Tobago House of Assembly (THA), and Nevis Island Administration (NIA) (Marcella, Chambers & Roberts. 2008). Despite this integration, there are numerous differences in the functioning of these institutional arrangements. These differences depend on the type of government operating in each country.
One of the factors that affect the capacity of the government to develop tourism policy is whether it is unitary or federal (Howlett and Ramesh 1995). Federalism has been criticized as the main cause of weak tourism policies in Caribbean islands. This type of government has constrained these Islands in developing consistent and coherent policies. However, both federal and unitary type of government have impact on the key issues like autonomy, capacity and the desire to develop inter-organizational and inter-island cooperation (Marcella, Chambers & Roberts. 2008). St Kitts and Nevis has federal type of government meaning that they have two autonomous levels of government in the country. They include the federal government and the NIA. These two are not held together in a subordinate relationship. Instead, they enjoy more or less full diplomacy in issues under their jurisdiction that were stipulated by the constitution
. The constitution of St Kitts and Nevis clearly states that the NIA is the one in charge of developing tourism and Nevis tourism policy making. It has power and enough resources to formulate its own tourism policies (Duval & Timothy, 2004). This means that Nevis does not depend on St Kitts for assistance. Therefore, tourism policy makers in St Kitts have no power to dictate policy making in Nevis. Nevis autonomy in policymaking and the strained relationship between NIA and the federal government poses a big challenge in communication and cooperation in building inter-organizational relations with St Kitts.
Antigua and Barbuda and Trinidad and Tobago have unitary government structure. This type of government has played a key role in the evolution of the institutional arrangements. In this type of government, there is only one level of government. The national government governs the existence of any local body and not the constitution (Duval & Timothy, 2004). Despite Antigua and Barbuda and Trinidad and Tobago being unitary states, the central government does not govern local bodies like Barbuda Council and THA. Their existence has been stated in the constitution. However, the internal core-periphery relationship between Trinidad and Tobago and Antigua and Barbuda possess the advantage in terms of power. They are governed by the vote of the people. Therefore, they dictate tourism policy and budget allocation in the islands. Central governments in Antigua and Trinidad possess contrasting perspectives on the aspect of tourism development in Barbuda and Tobago (Bohalis, 2000). Trinidad and Tobago favor large-scale developments whereas THA favors community based tourism development projects
. The major challenge to smooth relationship between Barbuda central government and Barbuda council is the reality that the interest of the central government is to accelerate the pace of tourism development projects in Barbuda whereas the council and the people demand involvement in the process of selecting development projects (Commonwealth Secretariat, 2000).
In short, the periphery of Trinidad and Tobago and Antigua and Barbuda are given less autonomy and resources to build and implement tourism policy by their constitution and legislative framework (Commonwealth Secretariat, 2000). As a result, these islands are dependent with manipulation from the core. This situation has provoked resentment in the twin islands towards the core because they have to request permission and resources from the core to administer their tourism industry. Individuals demand more autonomy.
Literature Review
Definitions of dynamics of Tourism
Tourism is dynamic industry. It comprises of phenomena and relationships that arise when non-residents tour another country for leisure and adventure. Tourism refers to the act of travelling for recreational, leisure, business, or personal reason within certain duration. The travelling time is usually limited (Buhalis, 2000). According to Jamal and Getz (1995), “collaboration is the process of joint decision making among autonomous, key stakeholders of an inter-organizational sphere to manage issues related to the planning and development of the domain
.” Co-operation is defined as a stage in the collaborative process. Co-operation is important in both between and within different levels of an organization (Getz & Jamal, 1995). For instance, in the Caribbean government, co-operation is necessary between:
· Government agencies
· Different levels of inter-organizational relationships
· Autonomous organizations that are equal but at different administration levels
· Private and public sector
On the other hand, coordination can be defined as the act of relating decisions or units so as to fit with one another, not to be at cross purposes, and so that they operate in ways that are coherent and consistent (Getz & Jamal, 1995). The three terms, collaboration, coordination, and co-operation are known to be essential tools that are used to strengthen the institutional framework.
Caribbean as a Mecca of Tourism
Caribbean islands have turned to be the centre of tourist’s attraction because of the many tourist attraction sites in the area
. In addition, governments in the region have formulated and implemented different tourism policies to ensure there is effective coordination of the tourism industry (Buhalis, 2000).
Economic impact
The economic growth of tourism has been highlighted in numerous studies (Hazari & Sgro, 1995; Balaguer & Cantavella-Jorda, 2002; Lanza et al.., 2000; Dritsakis, 2004; Durbarry, 2004; Eugenio-Martin, Morales, & Scarpa, 2004; Maloney & Rojas, 2005; Eugenio-Martin, Martin-Morales & Sinclair, 2008; Croes & Vanegas, 2008; Sequeira & Nunes, 2008). Different scholars expect tourism to continue playing a vital role in propelling economic growth in small island destinations (Richie & Crouch 2003).
According to Richie & Crouch 2003, tourism is one of the major contributors of the economic sector in Caribbean countries. The first economic impact is its contribution to the GDP of the countries. For example, it is estimated that over 25 million tourists contributed to $49 billion towards the GDP of the region in 2013. This represented a round 14% of the total GDP
. Tourism has played a vital role in the GDP of the Caribbean countries. The second economic impact is creation of employment opportunities. According to several researchers, 11.3% of the jobs in Caribbean countries are created by the tourism sector (Richie & Crouch 2003). These jobs are created either directly or indirectly. Caribbean islands highly depend on tourism as the backbone of their economy. The third economic impact is provision of steady revenue stream. This is because tourists continue to visit the Islands throughout the year. The revenue collected is used to support agricultural activities, fishing and local industries (Richie & Crouch 2003).
The fourth impact is improvement and construction of infrastructure. The services demanded by tourists have forced the Caribbean countries to construct additional infrastructure like roads, hotels and restaurant, airports, and electricity supply. The construction of this infrastructure has led to significant increase in the profit earned by the Islands (Richie & Crouch 2003). However, most of the profit is for corporations outside the region. Most of the hotels and restaurants in the area are foreign owned. The region is highly invested by foreigners. In addition, most of the foodstuffs in the hotels are imported
. Due to heavy foreign investment, it is estimated that only 30% of the profit earned from tourism remain in the country while 70% remains with foreign companies (Richie & Crouch 2003).
Cultural impact
The dynamics of tourism industry in Caribbean Islands has led to several cultural effects. Historians and cultural anthropologists claim that tourism has negatively affected the culture of Caribbean people. David Bennett’s article “Global tourism and Caribbean culture” gives an example whereby tourism and globalization contributes to an inauthentic culture (Duval & Timothy, 2004). This culture emphasizes on the tourist rather than the indigenous heritage. For example, Trinidad’s traditional carnival culture has been declared an inauthentic commercialized occasion that is used to lure visitors for economic gain. Historically, this event emphasized on mythological by representing the holy trinity and unity in the Island. From this example, it is clear that tourism in this region has led to cultural erosion (Duval & Timothy, 2004).
Political impact
The dynamics of tourism have had several political impacts. The first impact is that is has led to increase in government involvement in the tourism industry (Baidal, 2004). To ensure sustainability in tourism the government role has been increased. The government through the relevant authority has to formulate and implement tourism policies
. The second impact is that tourism provides revenue for government activities. The main source of government revenue in Caribbean islands is tourism. The third impact is that it has led to restructuring of administration offices in the government to cover the tourism industry (Baidal, 2004).
Social impact
Tourism in Caribbean Islands has both negative and positive effects. The first positive effect is the benefits gained from the improvement and construction of additional infrastructure and leisure amenities in the region (Buhalis, 2000). The local people are the direct beneficiaries of this infrastructure. The second social impact is preservation of traditional customs like handicrafts and festivals. If it was not for tourism industry these activities would have been abandoned. The third impact is creation of global awareness on issues like poverty and human rights (Buhalis, 2000). However, tourist’s behavior can have negative impact to the quality of life of the Caribbean people. For example, it can lead to crowding and congestion in beaches, drugs abuse, prostitution, and increase in criminal activities (Buhalis, 2000). In addition, tourism in the area has led to infringement of human rights whereby local people have been displaced from their land to pave way for hotels and restaurants. Traditional cultures have also been eroded.
Tourism as a key economic pillar of the British Virgin Islands
The growth and development of a country depends on its economy. The economy of a country depends on several pillars. For instance, these British Virgin Islands have four main economic pillars namely tourism, financial services, agriculture and fishing
. However, tourism is the main economic pillar in these Islands. The main reason why tourism is regarded as the key economic pillar of the British Virgin Islands economy is that it has provided employment opportunities for many people within the territory and in the tourist industry (Tourism Framework:Lieper, 1979). A greater proportion of the businesses are locally owned with many employment opportunities. Traders in this region depend on tourism. This makes tourism to be the main source of revenue in the Islands (Tourism Framework:Lieper, 1979). It is estimated that in 2006 around 825,603 tourists visited The BVI
. The yacht industry in The British Virgin Islands is the main source of tourism income. This territory has large hotels generating a lot of revenue.
Policy making with regards to Tourism in the Caribbean
Trinidad & Tobago model
According to this model, activities related to ministry of tourism are steered by the National Tourism Policy of Trinidad and Tobago. This is because Trinidad and Tobago has unitary governance. In this twin islands, the central government directs tourism policies. Tourism policy was implemented in 2010 by the cabinet of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago (Marcella, Chambers & Roberts, 2008). This policy emphasizes tourism as tool for socio-cultural, environmental, and economic development. The policy requires the government to use this tool in promoting tourism for the benefit of the citizens
. To ensure support on this policy, the ministry of tourism has the mandate to formulate sub-sectors policies to steer tourism development. In this connection, three policies have been identified as essential in promoting tourism. These policies emphasize on Sports Tourism, Community Tourism, and Eco-Tourism.
St. Kitts & Nevis model
After the collapse of the sugarcane company, followed by the implementation of the land release policy St. Kitts and Nevis government had no option than developing the tourism industry. Since St Kitts and Nevis have dual governance, the NIA and the federal government have the responsibility of formulating tourism policies (Jenkins & Henry, 1982). However, the sour relationship between these two governments has made it hard in formulating common policy in the twin islands. Tourism is the only economic activity that can steer the country forward. The combination of tourism and agriculture usually agro-tourism has proved to be a difficult policy because of inadequate experience within the country
. The promotion of tourism in this region has led to St. Kitts and Nevis becoming one of the major tourist’s destinations. The main rationale of implementing the Agro-tourism policy was to attract more tourists and increase employment opportunities (Marcella, Chambers & Roberts. 2008). This model would enhance economic sustainability due to tourism and agricultural development. This model has worked well in this region. It is expected that the agro-tourism policy will extend to other areas of the Caribbean Islands.
Antigua & Barbuda model
Since Antigua and Barbuda has unitary governance, the ministry of Tourism is the one responsible with developing tourism policies. The overall aim is to market and promote tourism within the twin-Islands. To achieve this Antigua and Barbuda have embarked on delivering distinctive and different tourism experiences. This will help in enriching the lives of the tourists and the residents (Smith (1977). The objectives of the Antigua & Barbuda model were optimization of the social and economic benefits and contributions, establishing the twin-Islands as the top visitor’s destination and ensuring sustainable environment
. To help market tourism in this area The Antigua and Barbuda Tourism Authority has established four oversea offices in UK, US, Canada and France.
Economic Benefits vs Contributions
In Trinidad and Tobago, most of the tourist visit Trinidad. Today, the main attractions in Trinidad are the carnival, cultural and historical attractions while in Tobago, there are beautiful beaches, coral reefs, heritage festival and most important it has peace. In St Kitts and Nevis, most of the tourists visit St Kitts because it is more developed. In Antigua and Barbuda, Antigua experiences the highest number of tourists compared to Barbuda (Marcella, Chambers & Roberts. 2008). Antigua is more blessed with tourist attraction sites like resorts and beaches than Barbuda.
Residents’ perception
In the case of St Kitts and Nevis, individuals in Nevis think that St Kitts citizens dislike them. Nevis citizens feel that St Kitts gives its activities the first priority. They feel they are not appreciated by the people from the sister island. This makes it hard for the twin islands to market tourism together (Duval & Timothy, 2004). In Trinidad and Tobago, there is no consistent in information sharing on tourism projects and achievements. There is no consultation in the two islands. Each island is independent so each island markets its own tourism (Abdollahzadeh et al, 2014). In Antigua and Barbuda, there has been challenge in incorporating Barbuda into tourism plans. In real sense, it should be automatic to include Barbuda in tourism projects but it has failed.
Dual governance versus Main island central governance
In the case of Caribbean Islands, policies may differ across the sister Islands. Dual governance is demonstrated by St Kitts and Nevis. Trinidad and Tobago and Antigua and Barbuda have unitary governance (Abdollahzadeh et al, 2014). These two types of governance have both positive and negative effects on tourism. The main positive effect of dual governance is that the twin islands are independent. St Kitts is independent from Nevis
. On the other hand, the negative impact of dual governance is that it can lead to conflicts over resources. Each island has different resource endowment and this can cause supremacy battle between the twin-islands. In the case of main island governance, the positive impact is that it ensures there are integration, coordination, formulation, and implementation of tourism policies because the central government governs all activities (Marcella, Chambers & Roberts. 2008). The negative impact of main island governance is that there may be delay in policy making because the central government must approve any development project.
Proposed Methodology
Case study approach is the appropriate qualitative method for this study. It will involve studying the public policy and the dynamics of tourism in the Trinidad and Tobago, Antigua and Barbuda and St Kitts and Nevis using questionnaires, face to face interviews and phone calls. The process will involve in-depth and semi-structured interviews in the public sector employees working in the tourism industry. To make the research fair, equal number of respondents will be selected from the twin islands. This will ensure there is balanced representation across the islands. Respondent selection criteria will be based on individual’s knowledge on the framed questions concerning tourism in the region. Respondents will answer several questions on the inter-organizational relationships mainly focusing on coordination, cooperation, communication, conflict, power, and financial arrangements. Collected data will be examined using the highlighted procedure on qualitative data analysis from scholars like Ritchie and Spencer (1994), Silverman (1993), Rubin and Rubin (1995) and Stake (1995).
The interview data collected will be sifted and plotted according to vital factors and emergent themes. After that, there will be thorough evaluation and organization of each interview transcript in order to get the important themes to be interpreted
. This approach is important because it helps the researcher in mapping and ranging responses. Primary data will supplemented by the use of secondary documents. The use of secondary documents will be vital in achieving a better understanding of the respondents and the research topic. In addition, secondary documents ensure there is credibility on the findings. Secondary data is important in facilitating convergence of major themes and patterns of data from interviews. This makes it easy to analyze the data. The use of case study and qualitative approach enables the researcher to have a clear communication on the findings. The results of qualitative in-depth interviews conducted on the internal core-periphery relationship indicate that the relationship has been reflected in and that it has a significant influence on planning, policy setting environment and the coordination of tourism in every country that is under study.
Expected Challenges (with conducting the exploratory research)
Like any other research methodology, exploratory research has several challenges. The first one is denial of permission to enter certain areas. As we conduct the research, we expect some areas to have strict measures. These areas may not be accessible due to these restrictions. They do not allow third party to enter those areas. This may be because of security reasons or inadequate confidence in keeping confidential data. Therefore, we may fail to get enough data on certain aspects of tourism. The second expected challenge is high cost of the whole process. Since exploratory research involves drafting questions, publishing the questions and travelling to conduct the interviews the cost may be so high. This may require us to find a sponsor in order to have successful research. Travelling from one island to another will be very expensive.
The third challenge is reluctance to answer certain questions. We expect some questions to go unanswered during interviews. Individuals may be reluctant or may lack knowledge about the questions.
The results of the study will point out on the different tourism policies formulated and implemented by different governments in the sister islands, perceptions of residents on tourism and the impact of tourism in the region based on cooperation, coordination, and conflicts in the Caribbean islands. The impact will major on economic, social, and environmental sustainability
Bibliography
Interorganisational Relationships in Small Twin-Island Developing States in the Caribbean – The Role of the Internal Core-Periphery Model: The Case of Trinidad and Tobago
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Chadwick 1987 – 3Ps for travel (Pleasure, Professional n other Purposes)
Buhalis 2000 – Attractions, Amenities, Anicillary Services, Available Packages, Accessibility, Activities
Plog(1977): Destinations carry seed of own demise
Smith (1977): Explorer, Elite, Offbeat, Unusual, Incipient Mass, Mass, Charter
Doxey’sirridex 1976: Euphoria, Apathy, Irritation, Antagonism & Acceptance
Postcolonial tourism: Demarcated, Disempowering, Disproportioned
DeKadt 1979: (tourist interactions with residents) Transitory, Temporal & Spatial
Richie & Crouch 2003: Tourism policy – regulations and strategies that provide framework within which the decisions affecting tourism development are taken.
Planning Approaches: Boosterism, Economic, Spatial, Community, Strategic Planning, Sustainable
Tourism Framework:Lieper (1979):
Must be holistic, 3 approaches (economic, technical, holistic), 3 elements (Tourist, Geographic, Industry), 6 Sectors (Marketing, Carriers, Accommodation, Attractions, Misc Services & Regulation)
Destination Competitiveness:
Richie & Crouch (2003): Goal is to increase and maintain increase of income in citizens and standard of living.
Wang (2012): CHINA – DMO should work with government for sustainability. Increase local community awareness and involvement to enhance climate for developing strong public-private partnership.
Public Policy:
Jenkins & Henry (1982): Government to take operational role in tourism until private sector develops. Should not be rhetoric
Stakeholder Relationships:
Timur& Getz (2008): Sustainability of Tourism requires network relationships with DMOs and industry organization and government. Each DMO should have strong relationships with various subsectors
Sustainable Destination Development:
Baidal (2004): SPAIN – Sustainability must be a strategic and cohesive effort with political will and technical strategic solutions. If left unchecked and unplanned for can be scattered and resources destroyed.
Rural Tourism:
Abdollahzadeh et al (2014): Less educated people do not see benefits of tourism, only environmental concerns. Persons who see self-interest benefits, tend to support tourism development. Tourism can improve rural infrastructure and increase demand for local products such as agricultural wares
Getz, D. and Jamal, T. (1995) The environmental-community symbiosis: A case for collaborative tourism planning.Journal of Sustainable Tourism2 (3), 152–173
? Duval, David Timothy. Tourism in the Caribbean: Trends, Development, Prospects. London: Routledge, 2004.
? Interorganisational Relationships in Small Twin-Island Developing States in the Caribbean – The Role of the Internal Core-Periphery Model: The Case of Trinidad and Tobago
? Buhalis 2000 – Attractions, Amenities, Anicillary Services, Available Packages, Accessibility, Activities
? Duval, David Timothy. Tourism in the Caribbean: Trends, Development, Prospects. London: Routledge, 2004.
? Daye, Marcella, Donna Chambers, and Sherma Roberts. New Perspectives in Caribbean Tourism. New York: Routledge, 2008.
? Duval, David Timothy. 2004. Tourism in the Caribbean: trends, development, prospects. London: Routledge.
? Wang (2012): CHINA – DMO should work with government for sustainability. Increase local community awareness and involvement to enhance climate for developing strong public-private partnership.
? Getz, D. and Jamal, T. (1995) The environmental-community symbiosis: A case for collaborative tourism planning.Journal of Sustainable Tourism2 (3), 152–173
? Buhalis 2000 – Attractions, Amenities, Anicillary Services, Available Packages, Accessibility, Activities
? Richie & Crouch (2003): Goal is to increase and maintain increase of income in citizens and standard of living.
? Baidal (2004): SPAIN – Sustainability must be a strategic and cohesive effort with political will and technical strategic solutions. If left unchecked and unplanned for can be scattered and resources destroyed.
? Baidal (2004): SPAIN – Sustainability must be a strategic and cohesive effort with political will and technical strategic solutions. If left unchecked and unplanned for can be scattered and resources destroyed
? Tourism Framework:Lieper (1979): Must be holistic, 3 approaches (economic, technical, holistic), 3 elements (Tourist, Geographic, Industry), 6 Sectors (Marketing, Carriers, Accommodation, Attractions, Misc Services & Regulation
? Richie & Crouch (2003): Goal is to increase and maintain increase of income in citizens and standard of living.
? Jenkins & Henry (1982): Government to take operational role in tourism until private sector develops. Should not be rhetoric
? Richie & Crouch 2003: Tourism policy – regulations and strategies that provide framework within which the decisions affecting tourism development are taken.
? Richie & Crouch 2003: Tourism policy – regulations and strategies that provide framework within which the decisions affecting tourism development are taken.
? Wang (2012): CHINA – DMO should work with government for sustainability. Increase local community awareness and involvement to enhance climate for developing strong public-private partnership.
? Planning Approaches: Boosterism, Economic, Spatial, Community, Strategic Planning, Sustainable
